Citation
Devarapalli
Rayappa
Research Scholar, Department of English,
Anurag University,
Venkatapur,
Ghatkesar, Medchal District, Hyderabad, Telangana, India – 500088
Dr. S.
Archana
Assistant
Professor, Department of English, Anurag University,
Venkatapur,
Ghatkesar, Medchal District, Hyderabad, Telangana, India – 500088
Abstract
The
current research paper examines feminism in India and the shifts in social
perceptions of people and gender inequality from past decades to the present
day. Feminism has progressed from ancient India to the modern era, reflecting
changes in various societal aspects such as patriarchy, social inequality,
intersectionality, and digital narratives. This study, titled "Fourth-wave
Indian Feminism Reflections in the Novels of Anita Desai and Manju Kapur,"
connects itself to this developing feminist context. The exploration of the
four waves of feminism highlights how each era has addressed women's issues and
the distortions experienced during those times, along with the significant
challenges posed by a male-dominated society as it seeks to create a more
equitable society free from gender discrimination. Particularly it emphasis on
inclusivity and intersectionality which addresses a wider range of issues
compared to previous waves.
Keywords: Feminism, Four Waves, Caste Consent,
Cyberspace
Introduction
This
study examines the portrayal of female characters in selected novels by Anita
Desai and Manju Kapur, providing a comparative analysis. It seeks to
investigate the roles of women in the works of Anita Desai and Manju Kapur. The
narratives of these two authors center around female figures, their dilemmas,
and their efforts to navigate the harsh realities of life. Both writers present
women in distinct ways to reflect the true essence of society. The study
explores how these women led their lives, their roles within their families,
and how they contributed to their household dynamics. The researcher will
analyze these questions in the current study, prior to delving into the works
of both authors. Anita Desai primarily focuses on the inner psychological
conflicts of women, highlighting alienation, emotional trauma, and identity
crisis. In contrast, Manju Kapur presents social realism, portraying women’s
struggle for autonomy within family, marriage, and social institutions.
Indian
English literature has played a significant role in portraying women’s
experiences, identity struggles, and resistance against patriarchal oppression.
Among contemporary Indian women novelists, Anita Desai and Manju Kapur occupy
prominent positions in depicting female consciousness and gender
discrimination. Both writers explore women’s psychological, emotional, and
social struggles within patriarchal Indian society.
The feminist movement motivated the creation
of both feminist fiction and nonfiction and also created new interest in
feminist writing. Its primary objective was to change the destiny of women who
have no rights, freedom, honour, or social importance in a social structure
where men are dominant. The feminist movement motivated women and helped them
to come out of the slavery of patriarchal society.
1. Genesis of Feminism
i. The First Wave (1840s to1920s)
Around the late 1800s and early 1900s, women’s rights efforts began
taking shape in Europe and North America, often called “First Wave Feminism.”
These campaigners pushed for women to be allowed to work and to gain the
ability to cast ballots. Mary Wollstonecraft is seen as the starter of this
first wave of feminism. Back in 1792, she put out her work, “A Vindication of
the Rights of Woman.” Wollstonecraft believed that women would be completely
equal to men if they were given the same chances and education. She spoke out
against any unfairness affecting women. The main worries for these early
feminists involved things like marriage, legal standing, schooling, jobs, and
the lives of single, educated women from the middle class. Mostly, they were
concerned with the problems faced by white women from the wealthier middle
class.
The first wave
of feminism, which concentrated on unfairness, women controlling their own
lives, and shared political and social matters, faded away as feminism changed
in the twentieth century. During the 1900s, feminism expanded and split into
various groups, featuring both those wanting change and those seeking total
overhaul. Revolutionary feminists include radicals, Marxists, and socialists,
while liberals make up the reformist side of feminism.
ii. The
Second Wave (1960s To 1980)
The second wave
feminism refers to feminist actions during the late 1960s and 1970s. Here,
women demonstrate against the disparity between men and women, particularly at
home and in the workplace. The subject of inequality and discrimination was the
main focus. The genuine goal of feminists in this wave was to identify and
eradicate the widespread, systemic racism that pervaded society. Their shared
goal was social equality, and sexuality and reproductive rights were important
topics for the liberation movement. A large part of the movement's work focused
on passing the Equal Rights Amendment.
iii. The
Third Wave (1990s until the present)
The phrase
“Third Wave Feminism” was originally coined by American author Rebecca Walker,
and its primary aim was securing equal social and financial standing. The
central concerns involve sexual liberty, impacting women across all
demographics and heritage, including lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and
financially disadvantaged women. However, the core battles these activists
champion include: 1) control over reproductive choices; 2) safeguarding against
aggression in private residences, jobs, and public areas, like assault and
sexual violation; 3) financial entitlements, covering fair wages, respect,
retirement funds, destitution, and valuing caregiving efforts; 4) legislation
against sex bias; 5) increasing the number of women serving in Parliament; 6) faith
based freedoms, such as opportunities for female priests and rabbis; and 7)
workplace fairness, meaning more women employed and a greater male presence in
domestic settings.
2. The Four Stages of Feminist Ideology in India are as follows:
i. First Phase (1850-1915)
The colonial venture into modernity brought concepts of democracy,
equality and individual rights. The rise of the concept of nationalism and
introspection of discriminatory practices brought about social reform movements
related to caste and gender relations. This first phase of feminism in India
was initiated by men to uproot the social evils of sati, to allow widow
remarriage, to forbid child marriage to reduce illiteracy, to
regulate the age of consent and to ensure property rights through legal intervention.
In addition to this some upper-caste Hindu women rejected the constraints they
faced under Brahminical traditions.
ii. Second Phase (1915–1947)
The second phase saw the birth of three major organizations: The
National Council of Women in India (NCWI), All India Women’s Conference (AIWC),
and Women's India Association (WIA). All these organizations were formed by
women between 1917 to 1927. Gandhi encouraged Indian women to engage in open
protests against the British Raj while legitimizing and expanding their
actions. In the decades that followed, women showed a strong commitment to the
creation of possibilities, setting up organizations that were solely for other
women. Bharat Stree Mahamandal was a women’s organization in India founded by
Sarla Devi in Allahabad in 1910. Fast-growing branches were established in
Delhi, Lahore, Karachi, Amritsar, and Hyderabad to address a range of issues,
including to promote female education all over India.
Ramabai was a woman who championed feminism, teaching, and changing society
for the better. She possessed a deep knowledge of Sanskrit writings. She openly
championed the rights of women and was a recognized campaigner. During an era
when widows faced mistreatment and were immolated on funeral fires, Ramabai
shattered those chains of male dominance and openly lived as a widow, a mother
alone, and a proponent for women's rights.
Tarabai Shinde was a
nineteenth-century Indian women’s activist. She battled for women against
male-dominated society. She was well aware of cases of widows getting
impregnated by family members, having dealt with upper-class widows who were
forbidden to remarry.
Savitribai Phule was a
Maharashtra-based social reformer, educator, and artist. She played an
important role in strengthening women’s rights in India, working alongside her
better half, Jyotirao Phule. She is regarded as a pivotal person in
Maharashtra's socioeconomic transformation. Phule was a successful Marathi
author as well as an altruist and an educator. Both opened schools for young
women in Pune. Together with her husband, she taught children from different
castes.
Ramabai Ranade has
advocated for women’s rights in the nineteenth century. When she was 11 years
old, she married Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, a renowned social reformer.
During that time, women were not permitted to go to school for education. She
established the “Hindu Female Social Club” in Mumbai with the help of Govind
Ranade in order to encourage women to talk in public. Ramabai was also an
author and the leader of the “Seva Sadan Society” in Mumbai and Pune.
She started paying frequent visits to the central prison, especially the female
wing, to help the prisoners feel more secure.
Bama Faustina Soosairaj,
is a Tamil Dalit woman’s activist. The books of Bama centre on the segregation
of standing and sexual orientation. Her works are seen as exemplifying the
rights of Dalit women and are acclaimed for praising the inner strength of
these women. Bama stated in a meeting that she writes because she considers it
her obligation and duty to share the encounters of her kin.
iii. Third Phase (1947 to Present)
Women in India were granted the right to vote and full constitutional
equality partly as a result of their efforts and involvement in the fight for
equality. Under Article 15(3), in the Indian constitution the state must
provide special accommodations for women in India. There were a number of other
strategic archives that came after, but in reality, there was a big discrepancy
between the idealized status of women and their privileges as described in them
and what actually occurred on a regular basis. After gaining its freedom, India
faced a wide range of problems. The brutality of the conspiracy, the uprooting
of the vast majority of people, and the division of collective violence tainted
Punjab's and Bengal's celebration of independence.
iv. Fourth Wave (2010s – Present) –
Digital Feminism
The historical background
of feminism must be understood in order to properly appreciate the
fourth wave. Women’s suffrage was the main legal problem addressed in the first
wave. The second phase of discussion included rights at work, family, and
sexuality. The third wave, which placed an emphasis on individuality and
diversity, questioned the limitations and classifications imposed by the
earlier waves. This evolution is carried out by the fourth wave, which
takes into account the developments in digital technology and tackles current
concerns.
Fourth wave feminism in India,
emerging prominently after 2010, is characterized by its strong
engagement with digital activism and cyberspace. Unlike earlier feminist
movements that primarily focused on legal rights and social reforms, this wave
highlights intersectionality, especially the interconnected issues of caste
and consent. Social media platforms have created spaces where marginalized
women—particularly Dalit, Adivasi, and minority women—challenge patriarchal and
caste-based oppression. The movement reflects how gender justice in India
cannot be separated from caste hierarchy, bodily autonomy, and digital public
discourse.
One common characteristic of
the fourth wave of feminism is its mobilisation and awareness-raising
efforts through the use of digital tools and platforms. In contrast to earlier
waves that were primarily limited to specific regions, the fourth wave tackles
global concerns like sexual harassment, body shaming, and discrimination in the
workplace. This movement links individual experiences with more general
societal developments in a way that is both intensely personal and broadly
political.
The fourth
wave of feminism has changed dramatically as a result of social
media. Social media sites like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter have developed
into effective activism tools that empower women to share their experiences,
plan demonstrations, and launch viral campaigns. Using hashtags like #MeToo,
#TimesUp, and #YesAllWomen, people from all around the world have come
together to raise awareness of the pervasiveness of discrimination and violence
against women.
The fourth wave of feminism builds
on the ideas of third-wave feminism. But, it has a global reach and includes
intersectionality. This wave emphasizes pressing matters including online
harassment, gender violence, and transgender rights. Grassroots movements,
social media activism, and a global perspective drive this movement. The #MeToo
movement is a prime example of fourth-wave activism that gained viral momentum
in 2017.
Emma Watson: She is a UN Women Goodwill
Ambassador and advocate for gender equality.
Ashley Judd: She is an actress and activist who
spoke prominently against sexual harassment and assault.
Malala Yousafzai: She is a Nobel Peace Prize
laureate who campaigns for girls’ education.
Beyond these waves, global feminism
emphasizes the interconnectedness of women’s struggles worldwide. It addresses
issues such as gender-based violence, human trafficking, and access to
education and healthcare on a global scale. It seeks to unite women from
diverse backgrounds to create a more equitable world.
A fundamental idea of
the fourth wave of feminism is intersectionality. This framework
acknowledges the variety of ways that people encounter oppression, depending on
their sexual orientation, colour, class, and other identities. By addressing the
particular difficulties experienced by women of colour, LGBTQ+ people, and
other marginalised groups, the fourth wave aims to be inclusive. The movement
aims to establish a more just and equitable society by embracing
intersectionality.
3. Anita Desai: Psychological
Feminism
Desai
is well known for
her study of the female mind. Her novels, such
as Cry, the Peacock, Where Shall We Go This Summer? and Fire on the
Mountain, according to reviewers, center on alienation,
existential dread, and marital conflict.
Scholars interpret Maya, Sita, and
Nanda Kaul as representations of women trapped in patriarchal structures,
suffering emotional neglect and psychological fragmentation. Desai’s feminism
is often described as introspective rather than overtly political. Caste
in her novels remains implicit, embedded within social structures but not
directly foregrounded. Critics argue that her emphasis lies on inner
consciousness and symbolic landscapes rather than social realism.
4. Social Realism in Manju Kapur
Novels
In contrast, Manju Kapur adopts a
socially grounded feminist realism. Her novels such as Difficult Daughters, A
Married Woman, and Home explicitly address marriage, caste restrictions,
communal tensions, and women’s autonomy.
Scholars note that Kapur situates
female rebellion within historical and socio-political contexts. Virmati’s
educational struggle in Difficult Daughters challenges both patriarchy and
caste hierarchy. In A Married Woman, Astha’s emotional and sexual dissatisfaction
critiques heteronormativity and communal politics. In Home, the constraints of
class and caste shape women’s roles within a traditional business family.
5. Caste and Consent in the Novels
of Anita Desai and Manju Kapur
Desai’s psychological feminism and
Kapur’s social realism, limited studies examine them through the lens of fourth-wave
Indian feminism, particularly concerning caste and consent discourse. Anita
Desai presents caste as an invisible structure embedded in elite patriarchy,
Manju Kapur foregrounds caste as an explicit social regulator of women’s
sexuality and consent. Together, their novels reveal how caste governs female
autonomy in both psychological and socio-political dimensions.
In the novels of Anita Desai and
Manju Kapur, caste may not always appear overtly as political rhetoric, but it
operates subtly through social structures, marriage systems, domestic spaces,
and moral codes. Consent, similarly, is often negotiated within marriage,
sexuality, and emotional life rather than expressed through explicit rebellion
In novels such as Cry, the Peacock,
Fire on the Mountain, and Clear Light of Day, Desai primarily explores
psychological alienation. However, beneath the psychological conflicts lies a
social structure shaped by class and caste privilege. Manju Kapur exposes the
social and sexual politics of caste-regulated marriage and female autonomy.
Kapur critiques institutional
patriarchy and caste through bodily politics.
Conclusion
In
the current study, titled Fourth Wave Indian Feminism reflections in the Novels
of Anita Desai and Manju Kapur, the authors position the fictional worlds of
Anita Desai and Manju Kapur inside this larger ideological framework by
exploring the development of feminist discourse from early reform movements to
today's digital activism. According to the study, Indian feminism is a
multifaceted and intersectional movement that is influenced by constitutional
rights, social change, patriarchal domination, caste structure, and now digital
opposition.
An examination of Anita Desai's novels reveals that they prioritize the
psychological aspects of patriarchy, depicting women who are isolated,
emotionally neglected, and have an identity crisis in upper-class, urban, home
environments. Caste functions subtly as a background structure embedded in
privilege and silence in pieces like Cry, the Peacock, Fire on the Mountain,
and Clear Light of Day. In Desai's novels, consent is seldom expressed
directly; instead, it takes the form of emotional distance, marital inequality,
and internalized oppression. Her feminism focuses on the inner fragmentation of
women caught in socially approved roles, is symbolic, and is reflective.
In contrast, Manju
Kapur presents a more socially explicit and institutionally grounded feminism.
Through novels such as Difficult Daughters, A Married Woman, and Home, Kapur
exposes caste as an active regulator of women’s sexuality, education, and marital
autonomy. Her narratives interrogate how family honor, community expectations,
and caste purity shape women’s choices. Consent in Kapur’s fiction emerges as a
political question—linked to bodily autonomy, marital rights, sexual identity,
and social mobility. Unlike Desai’s psychological interiority, Kapur situates
women’s resistance within visible socio-political frameworks, making caste
critique central to her narrative strategy.
When viewed through the lens of
fourth-wave Indian feminism, both writers gain renewed relevance. The fourth
wave’s emphasis on intersectionality, digital discourse, bodily autonomy, and
public articulation of private trauma allows us to reinterpret Desai’s silence
and Kapur’s rebellion as part of a continuum of feminist resistance. While
Desai represents the internal struggle within elite patriarchal structures,
Kapur reflects the outward confrontation of caste-bound and socially regulated
gender norms. Together, they illustrate how caste and consent remain
foundational to understanding women’s lived realities in India.
Thus, the research affirms that
fourth-wave Indian feminism is not merely a digital phenomenon but a
continuation of historical struggles—rearticulated through new platforms yet
rooted in longstanding questions of caste, autonomy, and women’s right to consent.
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