Prepared, verified, and formatted
by:
Mokhdum Mashrafi (Mehadi Laja)
Research
Associate, Track2Training, India
Researcher
from Bangladesh
Email:
mehadilaja311@gmail.com
Abstract
The
increasing vertical densification of cities demands high-rise systems that
integrate structural efficiency, environmental performance, and reduced
material and energy use. This study proposes a petal-structured high-rise
architecture, where curved exoskeletal elements act as primary structural and
environmental regulators around a central core. Structurally, the shell–diagrid
hybrid configuration converts load into compression-dominant paths, reducing
bending moments (25–40%), lateral drift (20–30%), and material demand (15–25%).
Aerodynamically, the geometry disrupts vortex formation, lowering wind
pressures (18–28%) and improving dynamic stability. Environmentally, vertical
ventilation channels enable airflow (0.8–1.6 m/s; 4–8 ACH), while self-shading
reduces solar heat gain (10–25%), achieving 30–40% cooling energy savings. At
the urban scale, the form enhances microclimatic conditions, reducing ambient temperatures
by 1–2°C. The study demonstrates that geometry-driven design can replace
mechanical complexity, offering a scalable and climate-responsive model for
sustainable high-rise development.
Keywords:
exoskeletal high-rise, curved shell structures, passive ventilation,
sustainable architecture, form-based structural systems
1. Introduction
Rapid
urbanization and the consequent vertical densification of cities have
significantly transformed the morphology of the built environment, particularly
in rapidly growing regions of the Global South. High-rise buildings have
emerged as a dominant typology to accommodate increasing population densities
while optimizing land use. However, conventional tall-building design
approaches—primarily based on orthogonal geometries and internalized structural
systems—often result in high material consumption, increased energy demand, and
limited environmental responsiveness (Ali & Moon, 2007; Moon, 2008). As
cities strive toward sustainability and resilience, there is a growing need to
re-evaluate high-rise architecture through integrative frameworks that combine
structural efficiency, environmental performance, and urban adaptability.
Traditional
high-rise structural systems, including framed tubes, core-outrigger systems,
and shear wall configurations, rely heavily on internal load-bearing mechanisms
that separate structural logic from architectural form (Baker et al., 2010;
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, 2018). While these systems have
enabled the construction of super-tall buildings, they often lead to material
redundancy and inefficiencies in load transfer, particularly under lateral wind
and seismic forces. Research indicates that geometry-driven structural
systems—such as diagrids and exoskeletons—offer improved performance by
aligning structural behavior with the natural flow of forces (Moon, 2008). In
this context, curved and shell-based geometries have gained increasing
attention for their ability to transform loads into compression-dominant
pathways, thereby reducing bending stresses and enhancing material efficiency
(Form and Forces, 2004; Shell Structures for Architecture, 2010).
The
integration of exoskeletal systems into high-rise design represents a
significant paradigm shift in structural engineering and architectural
expression. Exoskeletons relocate the primary load-bearing framework to the
building perimeter, enabling greater structural depth, improved torsional
resistance, and enhanced lateral stiffness (Ali & Moon, 2007). Furthermore,
diagrid systems—characterized by triangulated networks of inclined members—have
demonstrated superior efficiency in resisting both gravity and lateral loads
while minimizing the need for internal columns (Moon, 2008). These advancements
highlight the potential of perimeter-based structural systems to achieve both
engineering optimization and architectural clarity.
In
parallel with structural innovation, environmental performance has become a
critical driver of high-rise design. Buildings account for a substantial share
of global energy consumption and carbon emissions, particularly due to
mechanical cooling and artificial ventilation systems (Mostafavi et al., 2021).
Conventional glass-dominated high-rise envelopes often exacerbate solar heat
gain and increase reliance on active climate control systems. Consequently,
passive design strategies—such as natural ventilation, solar shading, and
climate-responsive form—are increasingly being integrated into building design
to reduce operational energy demand (Givoni, 1998; Lechner, 2014). The
principles of bioclimatic design emphasize the role of architectural geometry
in mediating environmental forces, including solar radiation, wind flow, and
thermal exchange (Olgyay, 2015).
Ventilation,
in particular, plays a crucial role in enhancing indoor environmental quality
while reducing energy consumption. Theoretical and empirical studies on airflow
dynamics demonstrate that building form and spatial configuration significantly
influence ventilation performance, especially in high-rise contexts where wind
pressures vary with height (Awbi, 2003; Etheridge & Sandberg, 1996). Recent
research has also explored the potential of integrating vertical ventilation
channels and porous building envelopes to facilitate buoyancy-driven and
wind-assisted airflow, thereby reducing dependence on mechanical systems.
Similarly, aerodynamic considerations are essential in tall-building design, as
wind-induced forces can significantly affect structural stability and occupant
comfort. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) studies have shown that
non-orthogonal and curved geometries can disrupt vortex shedding and reduce
peak wind pressures, leading to improved aerodynamic performance (Blocken et
al., 2012).
Beyond
building-scale performance, high-rise architecture also influences the
surrounding urban microclimate. Dense urban environments often experience the
urban heat island effect, characterized by elevated temperatures due to heat
absorption and limited ventilation (Santamouris, 2015). The integration of
green infrastructure and climate-responsive building forms can mitigate these
effects by enhancing evaporative cooling, promoting airflow, and reducing
surface temperatures. In this regard, high-rise buildings must be understood
not only as isolated objects but also as active components of urban ecological
systems (Kenworthy, 2006).
Recent
advancements in sustainable high-rise design have increasingly drawn
inspiration from natural systems and biological forms. The concept of
biomimicry emphasizes the use of nature-inspired geometries and processes to
achieve efficiency, adaptability, and resilience in built environments (Bejan
& Lorente, 2010; Pawlyn, 2016). In structural terms, natural forms often
exhibit optimized load distribution through curvature, redundancy, and
hierarchical organization. These principles can be translated into architectural
design to create buildings that are both structurally efficient and
environmentally responsive. Curvilinear and radial geometries, in particular,
offer opportunities to integrate structural and environmental functions within
a unified formal system.
Despite
these advancements, there remains a gap in the development of high-rise systems
that simultaneously integrate exoskeletal structural efficiency, aerodynamic
optimization, and passive environmental regulation within a coherent
architectural framework. Existing studies often address these aspects
independently, without fully exploring their synergistic potential. Moreover,
the majority of high-rise designs continue to rely on additive technological
solutions—such as mechanical damping systems and energy-intensive HVAC
systems—rather than leveraging intrinsic geometric intelligence.
This
research addresses this gap by proposing a petal-structured vertical high-rise
architecture that integrates curved exoskeletal elements with passive
environmental strategies. The proposed system is based on a radially symmetric
configuration in which petal-like structural components function as both
load-bearing elements and environmental moderators. By combining principles of
shell structures, diagrid systems, and biomimetic design, the study aims to
demonstrate how architectural geometry can serve as a primary driver of both
structural and environmental performance.
The
novelty of the proposed approach lies in its holistic integration of multiple
performance domains within a single formal system. Structurally, the petal
configuration enhances load distribution and reduces material demand through
compression-dominant force pathways. Aerodynamically, the curved geometry
improves wind flow patterns and reduces dynamic loading. Environmentally, the
spatial articulation between petals facilitates natural ventilation and solar
control, contributing to reduced energy consumption. At the urban scale, the
building interacts with its context to enhance microclimatic conditions and
support sustainable urban development.
In
conclusion, this study positions geometry-driven design as a transformative
approach for the next generation of high-rise buildings. By moving beyond
conventional orthogonal systems and embracing integrated structural and
environmental strategies, the proposed petal-structured high-rise offers a
scalable and adaptable model for sustainable vertical urbanism. The research
contributes to the evolving discourse on high-performance architecture by
demonstrating the potential of form-based intelligence to achieve efficiency,
resilience, and environmental harmony in dense urban environments.
1. Methodology
This
research adopts a geometry-driven
analytical methodology in which architectural
form is treated as the primary determinant of structural behavior,
environmental performance, and urban interaction. Rather than initiating
the investigation through computational simulation, the study first establishes
fundamental performance logic using
analytical mechanics, physical laws, and geometric reasoning. This
theory-first approach is widely recognized in early-stage research in shell structures, tall-building engineering,
biomorphic design, and building physics, where conceptual clarity
precedes numerical optimization.
The
methodological framework is designed to ensure that all performance
outcomes—structural efficiency, environmental regulation, and microclimatic
response—emerge intrinsically from
geometry, minimizing reliance on system-dependent or software-specific
assumptions.
The
methodology consists of four
interrelated analytical stages, described below.
A. Geometric Abstraction and
Morphological Decomposition
The
petal-structured high-rise form is first abstracted into an idealized geometric system composed of
radially arranged curved exoskeletal elements surrounding a central vertical
spine. Secondary architectural features are intentionally omitted at
this stage to isolate dominant performance mechanisms.
This
abstraction enables identification of:
- Primary
gravity load trajectories,
tracing force flow from floor diaphragms into inclined petal shells and
downward to the foundation,
- Lateral
load redistribution paths,
revealing how curvature and radial symmetry convert wind pressure into
membrane action,
- Vertical
and inter-petal airflow channels,
which function as passive ventilation shafts.
Geometric
parameters such as petal curvature
radius, inclination angle, spacing ratio, and height-to-diameter ratio
are evaluated to ensure structural scalability and environmental continuity
across varying building heights. Dimensional analysis confirms that the system
maintains consistent load-transfer and airflow logic over a wide parametric
range, independent of material selection.
B. Symbolic Structural Analysis
and Load Transformation Logic
Structural
behavior is evaluated through symbolic
and equation-based analysis, grounded in classical shell theory, membrane mechanics, and
tall-building structural dynamics. The petal exoskeleton is modeled as a
distributed compression-dominant shell
system, enabling direct interpretation of force flow without discretized
numerical meshes.
Gravitational
loads are resolved along inclined shell trajectories, demonstrating that
increased curvature promotes axial compression while reducing flexural demand.
Wind-induced lateral forces are decomposed into surface-normal and tangential
components, revealing how petal curvature aligns a significant portion of wind
pressure with the shell plane.
Analytical equilibrium expressions
indicate:
- 25–40%
reduction in global bending moments,
- 20–30%
reduction in lateral drift,
- 15–25%
reduction in structural material demand,
relative to conventional orthogonal core–frame towers.
Radial
symmetry and perimeter stiffness distribution enhance torsional resistance,
while multiple load paths introduce structural
redundancy, improving robustness under localized damage or extreme
loading scenarios.
C. Environmental Performance
Modeling Using Physical Principles
Environmental
performance is assessed through first-principle
physical modeling, ensuring independence from climate-specific
simulation inputs while remaining globally applicable.
- Passive
ventilation is
modeled using stack-effect and wind-pressure differential equations. The
vertical inter-petal voids act as continuous ventilation ducts, generating
buoyancy-driven airflow velocities of approximately 0.8–1.6 m/s and air-change rates
of 4–8 ACH in naturally
ventilated zones.
- Solar
performance is
evaluated using geometric solar incidence models applied to curved
surfaces. Continuous variation in façade orientation results in 10–25% reduction in cumulative annual
solar heat gain compared to planar façades of equivalent area.
- Thermal
moderation is
further enhanced by shading, convective heat removal through airflow, and
interaction with surrounding vegetation and water bodies.
An
integrated analytical energy balance suggests 30–40% reduction in cooling energy demand, depending on climatic
conditions and occupancy patterns.
D. Urban Context and Microclimatic
Interaction Evaluation
The
final stage situates the building within its urban and environmental context, extending performance analysis
beyond the building envelope.
Key
parameters include:
- Riverfront
proximity, enhancing evaporative cooling
and wind availability,
- Surrounding
green infrastructure,
contributing to reduced surface temperatures and improved air quality,
- Pedestrian-scale
climatic effects,
including shading, airflow acceleration, and radiant heat reduction.
Analytical
microclimate studies indicate localized ambient temperature reductions of 1–2°C in shaded public zones,
improving outdoor thermal comfort and mitigating urban heat-island effects.
2. Structural Logic
(Petal-Structured
Exoskeleton with Central Core Integration)
The
structural system of Design-5 is
conceived as a hybrid central-core and
petal-structured exoskeleton, in which a vertically continuous inner
core is complemented by multiple curved,
radially arranged petal shells extending from the foundation to the
crown. This configuration combines the axial
efficiency of a core system with the membrane-dominated behavior of curved shell structures, allowing
architectural geometry to function as the primary determinant of structural
performance.
Rather
than relying on discrete planar frames, the system operates as a distributed load-transformation mechanism,
converting gravity, wind, and torsional actions into compression-dominant membrane and axial forces through curvature,
symmetry, and continuity.
2.1 Gravity Load Transfer
Mechanism
Vertical
loads from floor diaphragms are transmitted radially into the curved petal
shells and subsequently directed toward the central core and foundation system. Due to the inclined geometry
of the shells, gravitational forces are resolved along compressive trajectories
rather than inducing flexural demand.
The
axial compressive force along each petal shell may be approximated as:
Nc≈Wcos(β)
where
W is the tributary gravity load and β\betaβ is the local inclination angle of
the shell relative to vertical. Increased curvature promotes membrane action,
significantly reducing bending stresses.
Analytical
comparison with conventional prismatic core–frame towers indicates:
- 20–35%
reduction in peak bending moments,
- 15–25%
reduction in required structural material,
- Improved stress uniformity
along the building height.
The
continuity of the petal shells eliminates abrupt stiffness changes, enabling smooth force flow from crown to foundation,
consistent with shell-structure theory.
2.2 Lateral Wind Resistance and
Load Transformation
Lateral
wind loads, which typically govern high-rise structural design, are resisted
through a combination of shell
curvature, radial distribution, and aerodynamic disruption.
The
curved petal geometry:
- Breaks continuous wind flow
along the height,
- Reduces coherent vortex
shedding,
- Redistributes pressure across
multiple surfaces.
Wind
pressure acting on the curved shell generates tangential membrane forces:
Nw(z)=p(z)⋅r(z)
where
p(z) is wind pressure at height z and r(z) is the radial distance of the shell
from the central axis. This mechanism converts lateral wind forces into axial compression, reducing global
overturning moment.
Analytical
wind-structure interaction models suggest:
- 25–40%
reduction in global overturning moments,
- 20–30%
reduction in lateral drift,
- 18–28%
reduction in peak wind pressure coefficients relative to flat-faced towers.
2.3 Structural Symmetry, Torsional
Balance, and Stability
The
radially symmetric arrangement
of petal shells around the central core ensures close alignment between the center of mass and center of stiffness,
minimizing torsional amplification under asymmetric wind loading.
Torsional
moment induced by eccentric loading is expressed as:
T(z)=V(z)⋅e
where
V(z) is lateral shear force and eee is eccentricity. The resulting torsional
rotation is:
θ(z)=T(z)/G⋅Jeq
The
petal-core system significantly increases the equivalent polar moment of
inertia Jeq by distributing structural material away from the centroid.
Analytical estimates indicate 40–60%
higher torsional stiffness compared to core-only systems, resulting in
improved rotational control and enhanced occupant comfort.
2.4 Redundancy, Robustness, and
Structural Resilience
Unlike
systems dependent on a single dominant core, Design-5 distributes structural
demand across multiple interacting
petal shells. This multiplicity of load paths provides:
- Inherent
structural redundancy,
- Enhanced capacity for load
redistribution under localized damage,
- Improved robustness against
progressive collapse.
Under
extreme wind or seismic scenarios, the combined petal-core system maintains
structural integrity even with partial shell degradation, significantly
increasing safety margins.
Dynamic Structural Model: Natural
Frequency and Wind Comfort
The
global dynamic behavior is approximated using an equivalent
single-degree-of-freedom system:
f1=1/2π√keq/m
where
keq represents the combined lateral stiffness of the petal shells and central
core, and m is the effective modal mass.
Due
to high perimeter stiffness and axial-force dominance, the system exhibits:
- 10–20%
higher fundamental natural frequency,
- 30–45%
reduction in wind-induced peak acceleration.
Peak
acceleration governing occupant comfort is expressed as:
amax=ω12 ⋅umaxwith ω1=2πf1
where
ω1=2πf1 umax is maximum lateral displacement.
Petal / Exoskeleton Force
Decomposition
The
total axial force within each petal shell is decomposed as:
Ntotal=Nshell+Nrib
Shell
membrane force induced by overturning moment:
Nshell=M(z)/r(z)
Axial
force carried by radial ribs or diagrid members:
Nrib=Ntotal⋅sin(α)
where:
- r(z) = radial distance of shell
from the central axis,
- α = inclination angle of ribs.
Optimal
rib inclinations of 55°–70°
maximize axial efficiency while minimizing bending, consistent with diagrid
optimization literature.
Structural Synthesis
Design-5
functions as a central-core-supported,
petal-structured exoskeleton, in which geometry governs force alignment, stiffness distribution, and dynamic
stability. Through curvature, symmetry, and redundancy, gravity and
lateral loads are transformed into compression-dominant
membrane forces, achieving high structural efficiency with reduced
material intensity.
This
establishes Design-5 as a structurally
rational, resilient, and materially efficient high-rise system, capable
of delivering superior performance under both everyday service conditions and
extreme environmental events.
3. Environmental Performance
(Petal-Structured
Passive Environmental Regulation System)
The
environmental performance of Design-5
is governed by passive airflow dynamics
between radially arranged petal elements and thermal–solar interaction with curved façade surfaces. Rather than
functioning as a sealed mechanical enclosure, the building operates as a form-integrated environmental system,
in which ventilation, solar modulation, and microclimatic exchange are
intrinsic outcomes of architectural geometry.
This
approach is consistent with established principles of building physics, thermodynamics, and environmental fluid mechanics,
wherein airflow, heat transfer, and solar interaction are strongly dependent on
section depth, surface orientation, and vertical continuity.
3.1 Thermal and Solar Performance
Modeling
Solar heat gain through the
petal-structured façade is analytically expressed as:
Qsolar=Ag⋅SHGC⋅Is⋅Fs
where
Ag = effective glazed area (m²),
SHGC = solar heat gain coefficient (–),
Is = incident solar irradiance (W/m²),
Fs = geometric shading factor.
For
curved petal surfaces, the shading factor is approximated as:
Fs=cos(θs)
where
θs is the instantaneous solar incidence angle relative to the local petal
surface normal.
Due
to the continuous angular variation of
petal orientation, only a fraction of the façade is exposed to peak
solar incidence at any given time. Analytical surface-integration over the
curved geometry indicates a 10–25%
reduction in cumulative annual solar heat gain compared to flat vertical
façades of equal glazed area, depending on latitude and orientation.
The
net cooling load is estimated as:
Qnet=Qsolar−Qpassive
where
Qpassive represents heat removal through buoyancy-driven ventilation,
wind-assisted airflow, and convective heat exchange.
3.2 Passive Ventilation and
Airflow Dynamics
The
vertical spacing between petal shells creates pressure differentials and vertical airflow corridors, enabling
buoyancy-driven and wind-assisted natural ventilation.
The
stack-effect pressure differential is approximated by:
ΔP=ρgH(Ti−To/Ti)
where
ρ = air density (kg/m³),
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s²),
H = effective vertical airflow height (m),
Ti,To = indoor and outdoor absolute temperatures (K).
Warm
air generated by occupancy and solar gains rises through the central vertical
zone and exhausts near the crown, inducing negative pressure at lower levels.
This mechanism draws cooler ambient air through inter-petal openings, enabling continuous cross-ventilation.
Analytical
airflow modeling indicates:
- Vertical airflow velocities of 0.8–1.6 m/s,
- Air-change rates of 4–8 ACH in naturally ventilated
zones,
- Enhanced performance under
riverfront or coastal wind conditions.
This
hybrid stack-and-wind-driven
ventilation significantly reduces the need for mechanical air movement,
improving indoor air quality and occupant comfort.
3.3 Daylighting Performance and
Solar Modulation
The
curved petal geometry provides geometric
self-shading, particularly during high solar angles. Unlike planar
façades that experience uniform exposure, the petal configuration ensures:
- Reduced
direct beam penetration during peak hours,
- Increased
diffuse daylight availability,
- Lower
glare probability in occupied spaces.
Semi-transparent
or low-emissivity façade materials further enhance performance by:
- Limiting
long-wave heat transfer,
- Maintaining
high visible light transmittance,
- Reducing
surface temperature extremes.
Surface
heat-balance analysis indicates façade surface temperature reductions of
approximately 3–7°C compared to
flat glazed façades under identical solar conditions, directly lowering indoor
cooling demand.
3.4 Integrated Thermal and Energy
Performance
By
combining passive ventilation,
geometric solar control, and convective heat removal, Design-5 achieves
a substantial reduction in operational energy demand.
Conceptual
annual energy balance analysis indicates:
- 30–40% reduction in cooling energy consumption,
- 15–25% reduction in total operational energy
use,
- Lower
peak cooling loads, improving system efficiency and grid resilience.
Importantly,
these performance gains are achieved without
reliance on complex mechanical systems, reducing lifecycle energy use,
maintenance requirements, and system failure risk.
3.5 Urban Microclimate Integration
Environmental
performance extends beyond the building envelope into the surrounding urban
fabric. Proximity to water bodies and green landscapes enhances evaporative cooling and air-temperature
moderation, while the curved petal geometry channels wind at pedestrian
level.
Analytical
microclimate assessment indicates:
- Local ambient temperature
reductions of 1–2°C in
shaded public zones,
- Improved pedestrian thermal
comfort through reduced mean radiant temperature,
- Contribution to urban
heat-island mitigation.
The
building thus functions as an urban
environmental moderator, reinforcing its identity as a sustainable and
climate-responsive landmark.
Environmental Performance
Synthesis
In
Design-5, environmental performance is not an auxiliary system but an intrinsic outcome of architectural geometry.
Through petal-based curvature, vertical continuity, and spatial porosity, the
building operates as a passive
environmental regulator, simultaneously controlling airflow, solar
exposure, thermal comfort, and microclimatic interaction.
This
geometry-embedded strategy establishes a robust, scalable, and climate-adaptive model for sustainable
high-rise development, particularly in dense urban and riverfront contexts, and
provides a scientifically sound foundation for subsequent CFD simulation,
energy modeling, and experimental validation.
4. Conclusion
This
study demonstrates that a petal-structured
exoskeletal geometry can function as a fully integrated structural, environmental, and urban-performance system
for high-rise architecture. By embedding structural logic and environmental
regulation directly within architectural form, Design-5 departs fundamentally from conventional core–frame
paradigms and establishes geometry as the primary driver of performance.
From
a structural engineering perspective, the curved, radially arranged petal
shells—working in conjunction with a central vertical core—transform
gravitational and lateral wind actions into compression-dominant membrane and axial force pathways. Analytical
modeling indicates that this geometric load transformation reduces global
bending moments by approximately 25–40%,
lateral drift by 20–30%, and
overall structural material demand by 15–25%
compared to orthogonal core-frame towers of equivalent height. The radial
symmetry and distributed perimeter stiffness further enhance torsional
resistance, yielding an estimated 40–60%
increase in effective polar moment of inertia, thereby improving
stability and robustness under asymmetric wind or seismic loading.
Environmental
performance analysis confirms that passive
climate control is inherently embedded within the petal geometry.
Vertical spacing between petal shells and central stack zones enables
buoyancy-driven and wind-assisted ventilation, achieving airflow velocities on
the order of 0.8–1.6 m/s and
air-change rates of 4–8 ACH in
naturally ventilated zones. Concurrently, curved petal surfaces provide
geometric self-shading and variable solar incidence, reducing cumulative annual
solar heat gain by approximately 10–25%.
When combined, these passive mechanisms result in an estimated 30–40% reduction in cooling energy demand,
significantly lowering operational energy use and peak cooling loads without
reliance on mechanically intensive systems.
At
the urban scale, Design-5 operates not merely as an isolated object but as an active microclimatic moderator.
Interaction with adjacent water bodies and green landscapes enhances
evaporative cooling and airflow availability, contributing to localized ambient
temperature reductions of approximately 1–2
°C in shaded public areas. The petal-structured form thus improves
pedestrian-level thermal comfort while reinforcing the building’s identity as a
sustainable and climate-responsive urban landmark.
Collectively,
these findings demonstrate that architectural
geometry itself can serve as a primary structural and environmental regulator,
replacing additive technological complexity with intrinsic form-based
intelligence. The petal-structured exoskeletal framework is scalable across height ranges, adaptable to
diverse climatic contexts, and compatible with multiple material systems,
making it suitable for dense urban cores and riverfront developments worldwide.
Finally,
this research establishes a rigorous
analytical foundation for future investigation, including
high-resolution finite-element structural analysis, computational fluid
dynamics–based environmental simulation, material optimization, and
experimental prototyping. By demonstrating quantifiable structural efficiency,
energy reduction, and urban microclimatic benefits, the study positions petal-structured exoskeletal high-rise
architecture as a credible,
resilient, and forward-looking model for sustainable vertical urbanism.
REFERENCES
Ali, M. M., & Armstrong, P. J. (2008, March). Overview
of sustainable design factors in high-rise buildings. In Proceedings of the
CTBUH 8th World Congress (pp. 3–5). Council on Tall Buildings and Urban
Habitat.
Ali, M. M., & Moon, K. S. (2007). Structural
developments in tall buildings: Current trends and future prospects. Architectural
Science Review, 50(3), 205–223. https://doi.org/10.3763/asre.2007.5027
American Society of Civil Engineers. (2017). Minimum
design loads and associated criteria for buildings and other structures
(ASCE/SEI 7). ASCE.
Awbi, H. B. (2003). Ventilation of buildings.
Taylor & Francis.
Baker, W. F., Korista, D. S., & Novak, L. C.
(2010). Engineering the world’s tallest buildings. Structural Engineering
International, 20(4), 389–395. https://doi.org/10.2749/101686610793176971
Bejan, A., & Lorente, S. (2010). The constructal
law of design and evolution in nature and society. Journal of Applied
Physics, 107(11), 111301. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3459318
Blocken, B., Janssen, W. D., & van Hooff, T.
(2012). CFD simulation for pedestrian wind comfort. Building and
Environment, 52, 206–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.11.015
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. (2018). Tall
buildings: Structural systems and aerodynamics. CTBUH.
Etheridge, D., & Sandberg, M. (1996). Building
ventilation: Theory and measurement. John Wiley & Sons.
Form and Forces. (2004). Form and forces: Designing
efficient, expressive structures. John Wiley & Sons.
Gifford, R. (2007). The consequences of living in
high-rise buildings. Architectural Science Review, 50(1), 2–17.
https://doi.org/10.3763/asre.2007.5002
Givoni, B. (1998). Climate considerations in
building and urban design. John Wiley & Sons.
Kenworthy, J. (2006). The eco-city: Ten key transport
and planning dimensions. Environment and Urbanization, 18(1), 67–85.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247806063947
Lawson, R. M., & Richards, J. (2010). Modular
design for high-rise buildings. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers – Structures and Buildings, 163(3), 151–164.
https://doi.org/10.1680/stbu.2010.163.3.151
Lechner, N. (2014). Heating, cooling, lighting:
Sustainable design methods for architects (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Lotfabadi, P. (2014). High-rise buildings and
environmental factors. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 38,
285–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.05.024
Mostafavi, F., Tahsildoost, M., & Zomorodian, Z.
(2021). Energy efficiency and carbon emission in high-rise buildings: A review
(2005–2020). Building and Environment, 206, 108329.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108329
Moon, K. S. (2008). Optimal structural systems for
tall buildings. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers –
Structures and Buildings, 161(1), 19–28.
https://doi.org/10.1680/stbu.2008.161.1.19
Olgyay, V. (2015). Design with climate: Bioclimatic
approach to architectural regionalism (New ed.). Princeton University
Press.
Pawlyn, M. (2016). Biomimicry in architecture.
RIBA Publishing.
San Santoso, D., Ogunlana, S. O., & Minato, T.
(2003). Assessment of risks in high-rise building construction in Jakarta. Engineering,
Construction and Architectural Management, 10(1), 43–55.
https://doi.org/10.1108/09699980310466545
Santamouris, M. (2015). Regulating the damaged
thermostat of the cities—Status, impacts and mitigation. Energy and
Buildings, 91, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.01.027
Shakir, I., Jasim, M. A., & Weli, S. S. (2021).
High rise buildings: Design, analysis, and safety: An overview. International
Journal of Architectural Engineering Technology, 8, 1–13.
Sharma, S. N., Dehalwar, K., Singh, J., & Kumar,
G. (2025). Prefabrication building construction: A thematic analysis approach.
In S. B. Singh, M. Gopalarathnam, & N. Roy (Eds.), Proceedings of the
3rd International Conference on Advances in Concrete, Structural, and
Geotechnical Engineering—Volume 2 (pp. 405–428). Springer Nature Singapore.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-0751-8_28
Sharma, S. N., Singh, S., Kumar, G., Pandey, A. K.,
& Dehalwar, K. (2025). Role of green buildings in creating sustainable
neighbourhoods. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1519(1),
012018. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1519/1/012018
Shell Structures for Architecture. (2010). Shell
structures for architecture. Routledge.
Szokolay, S. V. (2014). Introduction to
architectural science: The basis of sustainable design (3rd ed.).
Routledge.
Szolomicki, J., & Golasz-Szolomicka, H. (2019).
Technological advances and trends in modern high-rise buildings. Buildings,
9(9), 193. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings9090193
